Jungle And The Rain Forest Essays - Forests, Habitats,

Jungle and The Rain Forest Jungle and rain forest are terms that are often used synonymously but with little precision. The more meaningful and restrictive of these terms is rain forest, which refers to the climax or primary forest in regions with high rainfall (greater than 1.8 m/70 in per year), chiefly but not exclusively found in the tropics. Rain forests are significant for their valuable timber resources, and in the tropics they afford sites for commercial crops such as rubber, tea, coffee, bananas, and sugarcane. They also include some of the last remaining areas of the Earth that are both unexploited economically and inadequately known scientifically. The term jungle originally referred to the tangled, brushy vegetation of lowlands in India, but it has come to be used for any type of tropical forest or woodland. The word is more meaningful if limited to the dense, scrubby vegetation that develops when primary rain forest has been degraded by destructive forms of logging or by cultivation followed by abandonment. Types of Rain Forest Rain forests may be grouped into two major types: tropical and temperate. Tropical rain forest is characterized by broadleaf evergreen trees forming a closed canopy, an abundance of vines and epiphytes (plants growing on the trees), a relatively open forest floor, and a very large number of species of both plant and animal life. The largest trees have buttressed trunks and emerge above the continuous canopy, while smaller trees commonly form a layer of more shade-tolerant species beneath the upper canopy. The maximum height of the upper canopy of tropical rain forests is generally about 30 to 50 m (100 to 165 ft), with some individual trees rising as high as 60 m (200 ft) above the forest floor. The largest areas of tropical rain forest are in the Amazon basin of South America, in the Congo basin and other lowland equatorial regions of Africa, and on both the mainland and the islands off Southeast Asia, where they are especially abundant on Sumatra and New Guinea. Small areas are found in Central America and along the Queensland coast of Australia. Temperate rain forests, growing in higher-latitude regions having wet, maritime climates, are less extensive than those of the tropics but include some of the most valuable timber in the world. Notable forests in this category are those on the northwest coast of North America, in southern Chile, in Tasmania, and in parts of southeastern Australia and New Zealand. These forests contain trees that may exceed in height those of tropical rain forests, but there is less diversity of species. Conifers such as REDWOOD and Sitka spruce tend to predominate in North America, while their counterparts in the southern hemisphere include various species of EUCALYPTUS, Araucaria, and Nothofagus (Antarctic beech). Ecology Rain forests cover less than six percent of the Earth's total land surface, but they are the home for up to three-fourths of all known species of plants and animals; undoubtedly they also contain many more species as yet undiscovered. Recent studies suggest that this great diversity of species is related to the apparently dynamic and unstable nature of rain forests over geologic time. The fact is that despite their appearance of fertile abundance, rain forests are fragile ecosystems. Their soils can quickly lose the ability to support most forms of vegetation once the forest cover is removed, and some soils even turn into hard LATERITE clay. The effect of forest removal on local climates is also often profound, although the role of rain forests in world climatic changes is not yet clear. Humans and Rain Forests Throughout history, human beings have encroached on rain forests for living space, timber, and agricultural purposes. In vast portions of upland tropical forest, for example, the practice of "shifting cultivation" has caused deterioration of the primary forest. In this primitive system of agriculture, trees are killed in small plots that are cropped for two or three seasons and then abandoned; if the plots are again cultivated before primary vegetation has reestablished itself, the result is a progressive deterioration of the forest, leading to coarse grass or jungle. Lowland forests are similarly being reduced in many areas; on the island of Java, the lowland primary forest has been almost totally removed and replaced with rice fields or plantation crops such as rubber. In the 20th century these incursions on rain forests have grown rapidly, and numerous organizations are now attempting to reduce the rate of the loss. Bibliography: Caufield, Catherine, In the Rainforest (1985); Forsyth, Adrian, and Miyata, Ken, Tropical Nature: Life and Death in the Rain Forests of Central and South America (1984); Sutton, S. L., et al., Tropical Rain Forest: Ecology and Management

Glow Stick Experiment - Rate of Chemical Reaction

Glow Stick Experiment - Rate of Chemical Reaction Who doesnt love playing with glow sticks? Grab a pair and use them to examine how temperature affects the rate of chemical reactions. Its good science, plus its helpful information for when you want to make a glow stick last longer or glow more brightly. Glow Stick Experiment Materials 3 Glow sticks (the short ones are idea, but you can use any size)Glass of ice waterGlass of hot water   How To Do the Glow Stick Experiment Yes, you can just activate the glow sticks, put them in the glasses, and see what happens, but that wouldnt be an experiment. Apply the scientific method: Make observations. Activate the three glow sticks by snapping them to break the container inside the tube and allowing the chemicals to mix. Does the temperature of the tube change when it starts to glow? What color is the glow? Its a good idea to write down observations.Make a prediction. Youre going to leave one glow stick at room temperature, place one in a glass of ice water, and place the third in a glass of hot water. What do you think will happen?Conduct the experiment. Note what time it is, in case you want to time how long each glow stick lasts. Place one stick in the cold water, one in the hot water, and leave the other at room temperature. If you like, use a thermometer to record the three temperatures.Take data. Note how brightly each tube glows. Are they all the same brightness? Which tube glows the most brightly? Which is the dimmest? If you have time, see how long each tube glows. Did they all glow the same length of time? Which lasted the longest? Which stopped glowin g first? You can even do math, to see how much longer one tube lasted compared with the other. Once you have completed the experiment, examine the data. You can make a table showing how brightly each stick glowed and how long it lasted. These are your results.Draw a conclusion. What happened? Did the outcome of the experiment support your prediction? Why do you think the glow sticks reacted to temperature the way they did? Glow Sticks and the Rate of Chemical Reaction A glow stick is an example of chemiluminescence. This means luminescence or light is produced as the result of a chemical reaction. Several factors affect the rate of a chemical reaction, including temperature, concentration of reactants, and the presence of other chemicals. Spoiler alert: This section tells you what happened and why. Increasing temperature typically increases the rate of the chemical reaction. Increasing temperature speeds up the motion of molecules, so they are more likely to bump into each other and react. In the case of glow sticks, this means a hotter temperature will make the glow stick glow more brightly. However, a faster reaction means it reaches completion more quickly, so placing a glow stick in a hot environment will shorten how long it lasts. On the other hand, you can slow down the rate of a chemical reaction by lowering the temperature. If you chill a glow stick, it wont glow as brightly, but it will last much longer. You can use this information to help glow sticks last. When you are done with one, put it in the freezer to slow down its reaction. It may last until the next day, while a glow stick at room temperature would stop producing light. Are Glow Sticks Endothermic or Exothermic? Another experiment you can perform is to determine whether or not glow sticks are endothermic or exothermic. In other words, does the chemical reaction in a glow stick absorb heat (endothermic) or release heat (exothermic)? Its also possible the chemical reaction neither absorbs nor releases heat. You might assume that a glow stick releases heat because it releases energy in the form of light. To find out whether this is true, you need a sensitive thermometer. Measure the temperature of a glow stick before activating it. Measure the temperature once you crack the stick to start the chemical reaction. If the temperature increases, the reaction is exothermic. If it decreases, its endothermic. If you cant record a change, then the reaction is essentially neutral as far as thermal energy is concerned.

How to Define Atmosphere

How to Define Atmosphere The term atmosphere has multiple meanings in science: Atmosphere Definition Atmosphere refers to the gases surrounding a star or planetary body held in place by gravity. A body is more likely to retain an atmosphere over time if gravity is high and the temperature of the atmosphere is low. The composition of the Earths atmosphere is about 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen, 0.9 percent argon, with water vapor, carbon dioxide, and other gases. The atmospheres of other planets have a different composition. The composition of the Suns atmosphere consists of about 71.1 percent hydrogen, 27.4 percent helium, and 1.5 percent other elements. Atmosphere Unit An atmosphere is also a unit of pressure. One atmosphere (1 atm) is defined to be equal to 101,325 Pascals. A reference or standard pressure is commonly 1 atm. In other cases, Standard Temperature and Pressure or STP is used.

Two Events Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Two Events - Essay Example It acted as a wakeup call for USA to defend its citizens. The following paper looks at the above two events and how they have contributed to the current state of America. Attack on Pearl Harbor On 7th December 1941, the United States of America was intentionally and abruptly ambushed by the air and naval forces of the Japan Empire. The location of the bombing and sinking of American ships was the Pearl Harbor Naval and Army base in Oahu, Hawaii. The US eventually entered World War II due to this homeland assault (Takaki, 2008). I believe that the effects of Pearl Harbor were mostly positive for Americans. Even though the attack terrified the nation, it also united a nation that had been divided due to the war in Europe. After the attack, there were various drives launched such as scrapped iron drive, united paper drives and recycled items. These were used to make items vital for the war such as machine guns, flame throwers, binoculars, and hand grenades. Even the youngest were helpfu l as school children had coin drives in which they gathered coins to purchase war bonds to support the government (Dower, 2011). The second positive effect is that it assisted in ending the Great Depression which had started in 1929. It brought a great need for an industry that provides materials for war-times like ammunition, guns and uniforms for the troops. At the end of the war, citizens purchased all they could not during the war period. There was also a decrease in the rate of unemployment as ten million men and women joined the army while those left at home took jobs in factories. Another positive outcome was that as a resolution not to permit a repeat of World War II, the United Nations was born. The Senate that had declined to sanction the membership of America in the League of Nations following World War I, eventually irresistibly sanctioned US membership in the UN after World War II (Stone, & Kuznick, 2012). There however were some negative elements of the attack in that over 2000 citizens died and 21 ships were sank or damaged seriously. Japanese-American citizens were placed in relocation camps as a measure to ensure that there was no risk of a Japanese descendant acting as a spy for Japan (Takaki, 2008). They were forcefully evicted from their homes within 48 hours and lived in poor conditions. However, in 1988, congress gave a formal apology to the affected and gave the survivors compensations of $20,000 each (Stone, & Kuznick, 2012). After this gesture, America has now turned to be one of the most democratic nations in the world. Its citizens and government became more appreciative to human rights of foreigners and citizens. Conclusion It is clear that if we forget the past then we are bound to repeat its mistakes. The two attacks, even though devastating, shaped USA in their own capacities. They served to bring the nation together in times of crisis. We would not be the strong united superpower we are today without such occurrences. As a count ry, we should take precautionary measures in future and also arrest perpetrators of such attacks while still maintaining socially correct honor to the opinions and rights of mankind. It is right for us as a country to defend ourselves against future attacks but we should do so without destroying our civil rights and values as we do. References Didion, J. (2003). Fixed Ideas: America Since 9.11. New York: New York Review Books. Dower, J. W. (2011). Cultures of War: Pearl Harbor / Hiroshima / 9-11 /

Chapter 1 Summary Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Chapter 1 Summary - Essay Example 2), people who argue in favor of heterosexual and homosexual cohabitate relations tend to define marriage as a mere â€Å"union between people† whether it is legally recognized or not. A family is understood as a group of people ‘related by blood, marriage or adoption†; however, most of the Americans tend to accept the broader definition of family where cohabitation also is accepted (Schwartz & Scott, 2010, p. 3). The types of families in America vary from family of orientation, family of procreation, nuclear family to extended or multigenerational family. Racially and ethnically mixed families, lesbian and gay families and foster families do exist in America. The authors argue that factors such as race, class, ethnicity and gender have caused large amount of social, political and economic inequalities among families in the nation and as a result many families feel themselves as inferior. The social functions that families serve include â€Å"regulation of sexual behaviour, reproduction, social placement, socialization, economic cooperation and the provision of care, protection and intimacy for family members† (Schwartz & Scott, 2010, p. 5). There exists contradiction between the traditional family values and those propagated by educational systems. The breakdown of families and moral decay would result in most contemporary social ills such as HIV/AIDS, divorce, drug abuse and violence and the growing number of divorces, lesbian gay relations, unmarried mothers and incest add to these contrasting views on marriage. Studies and researches have shown that the concept of family life in America is very much clouded by myths. According to the authors, these myths, though they sound to be ‘dysfunctional or dangerous’, are ‘middle-class myths’ that are propagated by the mass media (Schwartz & Scott, 2010, p. 9). The major four debunking myths are discussed below: The concept of universal nuclear family found wide acceptance in the 1950s and 1960s. The

How Important And Relevant Is Mertons Strain Theory?

How Important And Relevant Is Mertons Strain Theory? In this essay I will analyse the importance and relevance of a structional functionalist view of deviance seen through the lens of strain theory and a symbolic interactionalist perspective through the use of labelling theory. Strain Theory attempts to explain why crime is resolute amongst the lower classes who are subjected to the least opportunities for economic achievement (O Connor 2007). It focuses on the positions that individuals occupy in a social system, not on the characteristics of the individual. Labeling theory explains why sustained delinquent behaviour stems from destructive social interactions and encounters (Siegel Welsh 2008). These theories work in harmony as the former theory explains why deviance begins and the latter gives an explanation as to why deviance continues through the lifespan. I will be describing and evaluating these theories to further answer the question of: just how important are these two theories for the understanding deviance? The sociology of deviance is the systematic study of social norm violation that is subject to social sanction according to (Henry 2009 p.1). Deviant behaviour is behaviour that does not follow common perceptions, when people are deviant they do not conform to expectations. It is difficult to give an exact definition of deviance as many major theorists have cast a vast variety of perspectives on what it really is. Some sociologists believe that deviance is the violation of any social rule, whereas other sociologists argue that deviance does not have to be a real behaviour for it to be labelled deviant (Thio, Calhoun Conyers 2008). Downes Rock (2003) state that deviance is everywhere and not only that but it leaves traces everywhere. Theories of deviance are rarely catapulted into political settings to be accepted or rejected in their entirety; rather they trickle in from many sources. The influence of ideas is always changing due to the instability of political circumstances (Downs Rock 2003). The increase in deviance may be due to the fact that people are confused about the correct values and morals to hold. As a result of this ever evolving world there are new variations of deviant behaviour occurring on a daily basis, ranging from minor violations of the law such as not paying a television licence to major deviance like abuse scandals in regard to the Catholic Church. These acts are considered to be deviant as they are acts which the rest of society deems as unacceptable (Tierney 2006). Traditional values such as religious views have been shattered to pieces because of ongoing scandals in the Catholic Church. Individual pursuits drive people; religion has no impact on the expected standards of people in todays materialist driven society, which in turn leads to an increase in deviant behaviours. The Functionalist perspective stems from the work of Durkheim who believed that peoples social roles or functions hold society together (Flynn 2009). In contrast to this is the Symbolic interaction approach where the emphasis is on the way people construct the meaning of others acts (Becker McCall 1990). Durkheim believed that crime is not only functional but it is necessary, it only become dysfunctional if the rates are either too high or too low (Covington 1999). The functionalist analysis of deviance begins with society as a whole; it looks for the source of deviance in the nature of society rather than in the psychological nature of the individual. Durkheim believes society is held together by shared values, and if these values are not constantly reaffirmed through the generations it may signify the collapse of society. One may put forward the argument that shared values are not a fundamental part of society today. It proves difficult to reaffirm values through generations when the family when parents are working long hours. Parental influence over children has declined; due to this children seek values from available sources such as the television or internet, resulting in the promotion of materialistic values which are in turn the norms today. If the community collapsed, and the collective conscience failed the result was a state of anomie (Covington 1999). In essence anomie represents the problems in society caused by social deregulation. Merton developed an anomie theory based on Durkheims earlier work which referred to a deinstitutionalization of norms that happens when there is a disjunction between the importance of cultural goals and institutional means (Featherstone Deflem 2003). Mertons strain theory argues that structures in society may encourage deviance and crime, it is a structural functionalist explanation. Functionalist theories offers the basis for policies that are wide-ranging in their scope (Downes Rock 2003), however Gouldner (1970) believes that Functionalism thinks of systems as mutually interacting variables rather than in terms of cause and effect, thus one may infer that it is impossible to implement policy to stop a particular effect if the cause is not highlighted. Theories of deviance are extremely important as Downes Rock (2003) believe that all theories of deviance have implications for policy making. That said however the ease of implementation of polices may prove difficult. For example doing something about anomie would be far more difficult than tackling vandalism by technical means (Downes Rock p. 317 2003) However, Mertons anomie theory is of great relevance to the realm of policy as it infers a definite cause and effect statement relating to the disjunction between goals and means (Downes Rock 2003). The main principle of Social Strain Theory is that some social structures exert a definite pressure upon certain persons in society to engage in non-conforming rather than conforming conduct (Thio, Calhoun Conyers 2008 p.33). This is not to say that certain social structures leave the individual with no other choice but to turn to crime, rather inadequate regulation leaves the individual with a different perspective on means to financial gain. I agree that this system is a great source of inequality and subsequent deviance in our society today that the less powerful groups are labelled so negatively and punished severely. Every crime should be treated in the same manner, regardless of whether they are from an underprivileged area or a high flying business person. An impact of cycle of deficient regulation may also be seen in Beckers Labelling theory. This theory was greatly influenced by the symbolic interaction approach as it is people who determine and give meaning to labels. The justice system operates on behalf of powerful groups in society; hence one has to ask the question what behaviours are criminal? The two strands of this theory are a concern to address how a particular behaviour comes to be labelled as deviant and secondly what is the impact of this label. (Becker p.9 1963) states that The deviant is one whom that label has been successfully applied: deviant behaviour is behaviour that people so label. In relation to deviance Labelling theory places the importance on the reaction to behaviour not the behaviour itself (Macionis Plummer 2007). It was this belief that leads Becker to place labels on types of behaviour, but who are the people labelled as deviant in society. To put it simply, labelling theory is concerned with what happens to criminals after they have been labelled, also suggesting that actual crime rates may be heightened by criminal sanctions. Unlike the Functionalist perspective, Symbolic Interaction is concerned with the process that underline social life and consequently the mechanisms by which meanings are given to those processes. It centres on the creativity capacity of humans and their ability to share interactions with others (Walklate 2007). In relation to deviance it is concerned with how certain behaviours come to be understood as deviant. Becker argued that behaviours of less powerful groups for example the poor, or disadvantaged are more likely to be criminalized than those who are privileged such as the white and wealthy. This happens because there is an assumption that crime is a social label along with the creation of law which are made by people in positions of power and enforced on people without power (Hopkins Burke 2002). The judicial system criminalizes less dominant and less powerful member of society, thus Becker argues that some rules may be cynically designed to keep the less powerful in their place (Hopkins Burke p.137 2002). Becker (1963) disagreed with the notion that those who break the law will be labelled as a criminal. He brought our attention to the fact that in many cases the innocent are accused, along with this only some of those who break the law are punished and brought through the system (Hopkins Burke 2002). Becker used a concept developed by Merton called the self fulfilling prophecy which is what labelling theory is most widely known for. When a situation is given a false definition it evokes a new behaviour in the person which as a result makes the false assumption comes through (Hopkins Burke p.142 2002). Becker felt that most criminals were in the first place falsely defined as a criminal, not only are their actions defined by society as deviant, the label is then extended to them as a person (Hopkins Burke 2002). Mertons concept of strain refers to pressure the lower economic classes feel when they try to achieve societys goals of monetary success (Flynn 2009). Merton felt that in society, people were focused on achieving high financial success which although exceptionally productive on one hand, on the other was a direct source of stress and strain for the individual (Cohen 1966). In effect there is a distortion between culturally induced aspirations for economic success and structurally distributed possibilities of achievement. This is in accordance with labeling theory view where the people who commit deviant acts are probably under strain from society to achieve monetary success. An example of this would be in relation to higher education, people without the means or cultural knowledge to aspire to respected professions are more likely to engage in deviant behaviour than those with access to achieving their goals (Flynn 2009). Within labelling theory there are two important concepts, those of primary deviance and secondary deviance. Merton thinks that the sense of strain that men feel is an accumulation of frustration, despair and injustice (Cohen 1966). Structural and Individual strain are the two main types of strain in society that promote deviance and crime. The former refers to the cycle of deficient regulation in society that has a negative impact on how an individual evaluates their needs, means and opportunities (Flynn 2009). The latter concept is defined by OConnor (2007) as frictions and pains experienced by the individual as they look for ways to meet their needs. Primary deviance in labeling theory involves acts committed by someone without a criminal identity such as an underage drinker. This act provokes little reaction from others around us, therefore it does not have any impact on the persons self concept (Macionis Plummer 2007). Secondary deviance develops through peoples actions towards the person committing the deviant act they may be pushed away and stigmatized making the crime worse, it is caused by the criminal label (Hopkins Burke 2002). It evolves from primary deviance being labelled, which is more likely to happen if you are from a less powerful group (Macionis Plummer 2007), thus mirrors Mertons argument about distortion between economic success and possibility of achievement (Flynn 2009). Merton noted that there were five possible responses or adaptations to strain that happen when people are not in a position to legally attain internalised social goals (Hopkins Burke p.107 2002). This is a perfect example of how labels are the cause of further deviant behaviour. Durkheim and Merton are one in believing that strain results in deviant behaviour, however Durkheim felt the main causes of strain were changes in society. Adapting through conformity is a self explanatory explanation whereby people both the cultural gaols of society and the means of achieving them (Burke 2002), this ensures the continuality and stability of society (Thio, Calhoun Conyers 2008), people do not break laws when achieving their means. Retreatism is considered the most uncommon adaptation by Merton, they reject social goals and the means to attain them (Hopkins Burke 2002), their behaviour is not normal and are considered true aliens (Thio, Calhoun Conyers p.37 2008). Ritualism is similar to conforming behaviour; they adhere to rules for their own sake with an emphasis on means of achievement rather than outcome goals (Hopkins Burke 2002). Innovation is a response to the pressure placed on the individual for success. The innovator embarks on novel routes to achieve success due to barriers for them to achieve success by socially approved means. They have the potential to be seen as deviant (Hopkins Burke 2002), as they engage in illegal means to achieve success. The final response is rebellion, whereby people not only reject but also want to change the existing social system and its goals (Hopkins Burke 2002). The very word rebellion connotes negative meaning thus showing the existence of labeling and stigma as used by Merton. People are stereotyped as being incapable of following normal behaviour and the general population treats them differently, resulting in discrimination in employment, and in many other areas of social life The internalization of labels by offenders may very well produce a career in criminality because of the negative reactions they receive (Hopkins Burke 2002). However, in contrast as Merton argued Cohen agreed that the root cause of the original emergence of delinquent behaviour was the economic pursuit of money success (Downes Rock 2003). A lot of labels come about through the stigmatization of a particular behaviour. Stigma is powerful negative label that has the potential to radically change a persons self concept (Macionis Plummer 2007), thus it is an influential force in the field of labelling. Slattery (2003) notes that a stigma can either be ascribed or achieved, you can be born with one or earn one. Similar to this is strain theories focus on negative relations between people, focusing on how the individual is not treated as they would like to be treated (Agnew 2002). Labelling theory has several limitations; firstly because labelling is very relative it does not take into account some behaviour like murder which is condemned virtually everywhere. Consequently it is most useful to apply to less serious behaviours like youth vandalism. Secondly, labelling may be seen in two ways- it could encourage more criminal behaviour of it could curb it because of people do not like to have a stigma attached to them. (Macionis Plummer 2007). Finally another limitation of labelling theory is that it does not tell us what are the root causes of primary deviance so how do these people become deviant in the first place? They cannot be labelled deviant if they have not engaged in that type of behaviour. Both labeling and strain theory emphasize the role society has to play in crime. Deviance is shaped in its transactions with events and people around it. Labelling theorists in particular have occupied themselves with the workings of the social reaction to deviance (Downes Rock 2003). Dissimilar to this is Durkheims perspective of deviance as performing functions that are essential to society through, encouraging social change, promoting social unity by responding to deviance, clarifying moral boundaries and affirming cultural norms and values (Macionis Plummer 2007). Sumner (1994) argued that deviance is not applicable to sociology today. He believes that the sociology of deviance died in 1975. Similarly Miller, Wright and Dannels (2001) claim to find empirical support for it and signify the death of deviance in respect to the world today. However, on the other hand Goode (2002) claims that at a certain stage in its history, the sociology of deviance developed a large number of ideas, concepts, and theories that influenced related fields. These ideas included: stigma which influenced disability and transgender studies, anomie in social theory, labelling in ethnic studies and the sociology of the underdog in queer theory. Regardless of the fact that sociology of deviance did not create these concepts, the field did help project them onto the intellectual map. Goode concludes that The social construction of deviance is once again controversial, relevant, central to our lives, and fundamental to our understanding of todays world (Goode 2002). I must agree with this statement as not a day goes by without some type of crime or deviant behaviour brought to our attention. Cohen (1966) believes that rules in everyday life provide a blueprint for every human gesture; consequently every rule then creates potentiality for deviance. However, as mentioned previously- are we really all aware of societal norms and values? I believe that society today has failed to provide a blueprint or clear rules for people to live by, hence leading to the unprecedented rates of crime and social deviance. Strain theory and labelling theory do not pay much attention to psychological factors involved in deviant behaviour, this is a limitation to both I feel. I would question the generalizability of strain theory as it emphasises the focus of materialism for society today. However, much crime is committed by people who simply want to get by in life, to survive. They feel they have no other option but to commit crime to put food on the table. Crime may not necessarily be about reaching the top in society, it may just be about getting by. Labeling theory is a lot more individual in its focus; it is more concerned with peoples reactions when placed in a designated role by society.

Omega Case Study Report Essay

This report is based on the case study of Omega. With external pressure, the company is now encountering internal problem, like high turnover and absenteeism rate. Personnel manager adopts attitude survey to analyses current situation. â€Å"Job attitudes and job performance are perhaps the two most central and enduring sets of constructs in individual-level organisational research† (David, Daniel and Philip, 2006:305). Organisations increasingly tend to use attitude survey to analyses their employees’ attitude and opinion towards employers (Paul R, 1988:145). Omega case provides an attitude survey questionnaire and relevant data. This report is based on these data to analyses the current situation of Omega, also discuss the reason of high absenteeism and turnover rate among professional staff using organisational behaviour theories, and propose recommendations for Omega to step off the dilemma. 1. The questionnaire Before deep discussion, it ought to go into the questionnaire Omega adopts, â€Å"Questionnaires can provide evidence of patterns amongst large populations†(Louis and Gravin, 2010:1). However, the design of the questionnaire has some problems. The questionnaire is consist of closed questions and open questions, including five areas in attitude evaluation, but the order of each question is â€Å"randomly presented†, which could confuse respondents when they do the questionnaire and easily get bored due to misunderstanding the purpose. In terms of open questions, their existence is to check the close questions are enough or not. Actually, experienced researchers choose open questions to understand respondents’ motivations and feelings in depth (Babara, 1965:175). 2.0 Current situation of Omega It can be describe the current situation of Omega as internal revolt and external invasion. Due to limitation, this report analyzes internal revolt of Omega. This part begins with a review of the literature on low job satisfaction. In addition, low organisational commitment, inefficient  communication system, improper leadership are also included. 2.1 Low job satisfaction In order to analyze the job satisfaction level, it is firstly should make assure what is job satisfaction. James (1992) defines job satisfaction as â€Å"the extent to which employees like their work†. And Luthans (2011:141) suggests â€Å"job satisfaction is a result of employee’s perception of how well their job provides those things that are viewed as important†. After explain job satisfaction, the measurement is put forward below . There are six facets of job satisfaction, which are the work content, financial rewards, hierarchical satisfaction, management, peers, and working conditions (Paul, 1997: 12). In terms of work content, Bozionelos (2007: 13) suggests five aspects to consider work itself, such as, skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy and feedback, which according Omega’s situation, they are low. It is a little better of the financial rewards aspect than the work content but still is low. Employees do not hold the shares of Omega and they think company underestimate their effort and their value and just 34% employees think they are paid fairly. Hierarchical satisfaction is not very clearly discussed in this case. Management satisfaction in Omega is mediate. Nevertheless, 89% of respondents think their immediate superiors treat them fairly. Other factor, namely, level of support, is low. Coworker satisfaction is not high as well because only 42% of respondents’ stay in company due to coworkers. Work condition in Omega supposes to be low because employees think manager does not care about the work condition, so work condition might be low. Through analyses above, job satisfaction of Omega could be judged as low. 2.2 Inefficient communication system David (1997, 42) defines communication process as â€Å"the transmission of information, and the exchange of meaning†. Robbins (2010: 290) points out six main parts of communication process, such as the information giver, encoding, the information, the channel, decoding, information receiver,  interference and feedback. Omega lack channel and feedback of communication process, so the process is not seriously exist in Omega. There are many directions of communication in organisation, namely vertically up and down, horizontally with coworkers (Katherine, 2012:31). Robbins (2010:291) also points out the main role of downward communication is to explain the reasons of different decisions. In Omega even the result of questionnaire is sent to the home address of employee not through company’s internal mail system. This could demonstrate the communication in company is really weak. David (1997, 42) defines communication process as â€Å"the transmission of information, and the exchange of meaning†. Furthermore, Cal and Allison (2004:6) say feedback could be an important facet to assess communicational efficiency and different company will have different emphasis on communication process. In Omega, they seldom receive feedback from their superiors. Furthermore, employees even do not know what happened in other regions of company or some issues relate to Omega. Through these analyses the communication system in Omega is really inefficient. 2.3 Low organisational commitment Organisational commitment is one of attitudes employees have towards organisation. Allen and Meyer(1991,) suggest organisational commitment consist of three parts â€Å"a desire (affective commitment: an emotional attachment to organiasation) to stay in a company; a need(continuance commitment: consider cost of leaving the company) to stay and an obligation(normative commitment: moral and ethical consideration) to stay† Though the questionnaire of Omega is not very clearly include organisational commitment questions, it still can be reckoned by similar questions. The question about belonging to Omega can be recognized as affective commitment question and only 23% of respondents think they have this feeling, which means the affective in Omega is low. In addition, when ask if any other company offered more than 5% salary will you leave Omega, 27% of respondents  will leave. And when it is raised by 10%, the result is 52%, and raised by 15% then 75% will leave. However, 89% of them do not treat financial reward is the most important aspect of their job. In this way, it could be reckoned normative commitment in Omega is low, meaning there is little moral or ethnic factor employees consider when they choose to leave company. Though there is few content of questionnaire relating to continuance commitment, organisational commitment is still low from the other two aspects. 2.4 Improper leadership Robbins (2010:316) define leadership as â€Å"the ability to influence a group toward the achievement of a vision or set of goals†. Furthermore, Bozionelos (2007:14) claims â€Å"the main role of leader is to motivate his/her subordinates.† He also points out leaders could motivate employees by using â€Å"right† style. According to OHIO style studies, high consideration sometimes is associated with less turnover and absenteeism. Employees in Omega mainly are highly educated, who have interests in company operations and have strong aspirations to get involved in their job, not just finishing the task superiors give them. Nevertheless, leaders in Omega ignore the workforce environment and adopt improper leadership, like ignoring their opinions and isolating them from the whole company, furthermore, providing unsatisfied working environment. In conclusion, leadership in Omega is improper. 3.0 Analyses high turnover and absenteeism The relationship between turnover and absenteeism is positive, which means high turnover relate to high absenteeism vice versa (Terry, 1978). There are several reasons to the high absenteeism and turnover rate. Robert (1993) figures out job satisfaction and organisational commitment negatively relate to the turnover and absenteeism. In terms of the relationship between the two, there are mainly two different views, one of which is â€Å"the commitment mediate the effect of job satisfaction† (Porter, 1974), the other one of which is the two both have impact on turnover but separately (Dougherty, 1985). This report follows the latter view. In addition, motivation theories are also mentioned below. 3.1 Job satisfaction reason Bozionelos (2007: 13) implicates the relationship between job satisfaction and absenteeism is moderate strong and Bobbins(2010: 72) supports this view and think the relationship is moderate to weak. According to these two scholars, there are many other reasons independent on job-related aspect, like the traffic situation and family stuff like child’s sick, etc. And Bozionelos(2007: ) mentions unsatisfied employees are more likely truancy than satisfied ones participate in work, which means make employees satisfying could not make sure low absenteeism, but if employees are unsatisfying they will more likely absent. Tett and Meyer(1993) conclude the relationship between job satisfaction and turnover is also moderate. However, Carsten and Spector (1987) point out job satisfaction will lead to turnover when employees find it easy to find an other similar job. 47% of respondents would leave company if they find a comparable job. In this way, job satisfaction is strongly relate to quit. Given the theory mentioned above and analyses of job satisfaction level in Omega, It could make a conclusion that job satisfaction in Omega is low and moderately leading to high turnover and absenteeism rate. 3.2 Organisational commitment reason â€Å"Empirical research on organisational commitment generally has shown commitment to be a significant predictor of turnover† (Gary, 1987). Also, John and Dennis (1990) demonstrate organisational commitment could help organisation reduce withdraw behaviour, like absenteeism and turnover. Furthermore, some scholars support the view that high organisatioanl commitment could lead to high job satisfaction (Batemen and Strasser, 1984). In terms organisational commitment itself, Robbins(2010:64) demonstrate organisational commitment negatively relate to both absenteeism and turnover, and in particular, affective commitment have stronger relationship than other two type of commitment with turnover and absenteeism. Meyer (2002) after a meta-analyses support Robbins conclusion, and figure out  affective commitment is the strongest lead to high turnover rate(Ï  = −.17). However, in terms of absenteeism, except affective commitment, the other two commitments have positive relationship with absenteeism. Though there is few content of questionnaire relating to continuance commitment, organisational commitment in Omega still could explain the high turnover and absenteeism rate, because affective commitment is low, which is the strongest aspect influence withdraw behaviour. 3.3 Motivation reason Motivation theories could explain the high turnover and absenteeism is because lack of motivation will have influence job satisfaction and organisational commitment, which have discuss above to be proved could impact quit and missing the job. Motivation theories used in this report are equity theory. Mullins(2002:443) explains equity theory as â€Å"focuses on peoples’ feeling of how fairly they have been treated in comparison with the treatment received by others.† He points out one of inequity behaviour is â€Å"leaving the field† to find balance. In this way, employees are tend to absent and find other equal job. In addition, Laura (2000) suggests wage equity is related to worker motivation. Employees in Omega believe they are under inequity situation, because of inequity input and output. About 66% of respondents think they are paid unfairly. As a result, employees are tend to absent and change their job. 4.0 Recommendation This part is mainly based on motivation theory and motivation applications method. Apart from motivate employees, improving job satisfaction, consummating communication system are also used to propose recommendations. 4.1 Motivate employee Maslow’s theory and Herzberg’s theory are applied to suggestions. Though popular with its criticism, Maslow’s five level hierarchy theory is always  the basic theory of motivation and is simply applied to real case. Maslow hierarchy need theory consists of five needs of a person, which, from the bottom to the top, are physiological, safety, love, esteem, self-actualization (Maslow, 1954). These needs are satisfied until the lower needs are fulfilled. Mangers need to identify dominant needs during employees then provide incentives to satisfy them in order to improve job satisfaction (Bozionelos , 2007: 29). In Omega case, manager should first identify what employees really needs. Except relatively satisfied salary, they also need more control in their work and more communication with superior. Next theory using to propose suggestions is Herzberg’s two-factor theory, which are hygiene factors and motivators. Hygiene factors are mostly about work conditions and environment and actually hygiene cannot motivate employees, but if hygiene factors are not filled, they will lead to dissatisfaction. Motivators are mostly about work itself and work content. Robbins (2010:143) suggests it is advised to use motivator to motivate people, like â€Å"promotional opportunities, opportunities for personal growth, recognition, responsibility and achievement†. Omega manager or personnel manager can follow this suggestion to redesign the job in Omega. 4.2 Improve job satisfaction Locke (1976) says job satisfaction is a â€Å"positive emotional state†, so improving job satisfaction is same as improving the positive emotion of employees. There are several aspects could lead to high level of job satisfaction. One of the most significant aspects relating to high job satisfaction is enjoying the job. Enjoyable job should provide necessary training, variety and authorization (Robbins, 2010:67). In Omega, managers could decrease close supervision when employees working, which probably could increase job satisfaction. 4.3 Consummate communication system As mentioned above, the communication process is important in an  organisation. Omega’s manager should provide a platform for employees to express their opinions, complains and proposals. In addition, frequent feedback is also essential during the whole communication process even though it may be the last step. Formulating new feedback policy in accordance with job’s need. 4.4 Improve employee involvement Lawer (1986) suggests â€Å"job involvement has been considered the key to activating employee motivation†. In addition, employee involvement could also help improve job satisfaction (Steve, 1996). Involving employee can not only help improve job satisfaction but also help improve organiasational commitment. Daily update e-mail could provide latest news of company as well as satisfy employees’ need to understand organisation. Furthermore, involving employee could develop a feeling of belonging to organisation. 5.0 Conclusion Through the analyses above, it is clear that there are numerous of problems in Omega. Low job satisfaction, inefficient communication system, low organisational commitment and improper leadership are the key problems. Some of them strongly relate to high turnover and absenteeism rate, some of them moderately relate. Recommendations are based on the problems, which most could be applied to real work. More importantly, taking actions to make ideas into reality is the key. 6. Personal reflection This part mainly discusses the writer’s personal opinion on management. Fortunately, this case study gives me a lot of thinking about management and leadership. As a manager in a company especially in a highly educated organisation must pay attention to employees’ opinion towards company and management. Their involvement not only can level up their job satisfaction but also can help improve efficient of management. In addition, motivation system is another factor that should be taken seriously. Though there are many theories in motivation and many ways to motivate employees, actually,  manager could choose one and utilize effectively, then can benefit a lot. 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